Provision of Non Audit Services by the Auditor to the Audit Client Is Essay

Arrangement of Non Audit Services by the Auditor to the Audit Client Is a Threat to Auditors' Independence - Essay Example Presentation The estimation of an examined budget report relies upon the auditor’s freedom. Bookkeeping outrages, for example, Enron of the United States just as HIH Insurance of Australia have made questions with respect to auditor’s autonomy and the estimation of their review. The nature that is created from the long review residency and the financial reliance emerging from the non review administrations and social bond created between the evaluator and the auditor’s customer through long haul affiliation have brought up issues with respect to reviewer autonomy (Carson and Simnett, 2006). Non Audit Services (NAS) are likewise distinguished as ‘management warning services’. Controllers accept that non review administrations gave to review customers is a genuine danger to the auditors’ autonomy. Controllers accept that irreconcilable circumstances happen and charge reliance has a harming influence on evaluator autonomy. Review firms regularly protect themselves by saying that charge reliance doesn't impact them and review and non review administrations are performed autonomously by discrete staff (Houghton and Ikin, 2001). It is likewise opined that non evaluating administrations help in decrease of complete expenses, improve specialized ability and heighten rivalry. The review firms, the review customers and administrative bodies can realize productive administrations blend through market connection (Arrunada, 1999). 2. Writing Review 2.1 Non Audit Services of Auditors The administrations that outer inspectors give to their customers can be ordered into counseling, expense and review. Counseling and assessment are frequently alluded as non review administrations. Segment 201 of the Sarbanes Oxley Act sets out the administrations which the outer review firm ought not perform. They can't perform accounting administrations identified with budget summaries and bookkeeping records. They can't plan or execute monetary data fr ameworks. They can't perform valuation or evaluation administrations, actuarial administrations, the board capacities, legitimate administrations, prosecution or organization related master administrations. The examiner is likewise restricted from giving showcasing and arranging related non review administrations to the review customer and duty administrations to the supervisory group or the relatives of the group (Burke and et. al., 2008). 2.2 Threat to Auditor’s Independence It is accepted that NAS administrations of examiners change their job from that of an outcast who can take a straightforward view to that of an insider who effectively takes part in the dynamic and goes about as a consultant. The financial bond that is made between the review customer and the evaluator through their agreement hampers the auditor’s freedom. So as to complete an extensive examination of the freedom of inspectors, it is fundamental to analyze the minor charge reliance that outcomes from the NAS administrations notwithstanding the all out expense reliance. It has been expressed that reviewers ought to authentically just as far as appearance, be autonomous. NAS affects the observation with respect to the freedom of reviewers and it makes question in regards to the credibility of the auditor’s data (Francis, 2006). Enactments have prohibited the arrangement of a few NAS by reviewers for safeguarding the auditor’s autonomy. Controllers accepted that evaluators could go to the degree of giving up their autonomy so as to hold customers who pay enormous non review charges (Defond and et. al., 2002) The different dangers

English Writing Essay - Grammar and Punctuation Tips

English Writing Essay - Grammar and Punctuation TipsA good English writing essay should be free from spelling errors and other common grammatical errors that students are likely to make when writing essays for exams. Do not use the wrong spellings for names of things or terms. Letting such mistakes show will only frustrate you when it comes time to write an essay.Word processors and grammar checkers will not catch many of these mistakes. You must rely on yourself and a dictionary if possible to come up with your essay. Unfortunately, some of the better writers and essay readers will not catch most of these mistakes.One way you can catch them is to edit your paper before you send it out for feedback. Check to see if all of the spelling and grammatical errors have been corrected. If they are not, go back and make sure you have corrected them all.Look over your essay and mark all of the different sections and points. Make sure you have understood all of the points you made. When you are finished marking the points, list them in your English writing essay outline and start to form the topics you want to cover.Once you have done this, you may write the conclusion. The conclusion should be relatively short and simple. You can also use a dictionary if you need to, but remember that your English writing essay outline should also include this section.Use your definition of your topic to form your final section of your essay. For example, if you are writing about your daughter's new dog, you may use your definition of 'dog' to help you form the next section. Include your thoughts about your experience with your new dog in this section and do not forget to include any photos you took of your dog.Once you have these sections in place, you are ready to write the rest of your essay. The important thing here is to start writing and get going. Don't let the earlier errors hinder you.Remember that when it comes to a writing assignment, your essay will not be judged by the quali ty of your work, but by the time you take to write it. A good essay is something that is easy to read and understand and you can learn a lot about your topic by making the first draft of your essay a little difficult.

Witchcraft And Demonology In Early Modern Europe

Black magic And Demonology In Early Modern Europe The witch-chases were one of the most significant occasions throughout the entire existence of early current Europe, occurring from the mid-fifteenth century and completion in the mid-eighteenth century. The perspective on black magic developed all through the period, with the Canon Episcopi calling the faith in witches a sin, to Pope Innocent VIII giving a bull in 1484 to criticize the act of black magic as a blasphemy †all in a range of around 500 years. On the subject of black magic, it is unavoidable that the issue of sex would be talked about. The focal inquiry of this report would be the way history specialists represent the abuse of a larger number of ladies than men in the witch-chases in early present day Europe. The report will initially diagram the generalization of a witch and examine how this generalization was declared. It will be worried about two potential clarifications that endeavor to represent the abuse of a greater number of ladies than men †right off t he bat, how the mistreatments might be a consequences of a misanthropic and male centric culture, and furthermore, how the chases might be been an aftereffect of the absence of resistance for social aberrance of ladies. The generalization of a witch An assortment of insights show that a greater part of denounced witches were ladies, with most gauges highlighting about 80% of all casualties being ladies (Ross, 1995: 334). Levack (1987: 142) gives a rundown of insights showing that in many districts in Europe, around seventy five percent of the charged were ladies, with the figures being 90% in areas in Poland and England. Evidently, the dominating idea of a witch is that it is premier a lady. In talking about the generalization of a witch it is troublesome not to make reference to the combined idea of black magic (Levack, 1987: 32-51), which focuses to specific factors that would help in the distinguishing proof of a witch. These incorporate a witch’s relationship with the Devil, the agreement with the Devil, the Sabbath, nightflying and transformation. Reginald Scot in 1584 portrayed witches as ladies who were â€Å"commonly old, faltering, blearie-eied, pale, fowle, and brimming with wrinkles, poore, bleak, and superstitious†. This generalization was declared by the two sexual orientations. Ladies in early present day Europe were seen as the more fragile sexual orientation that was reliant on men from multiple points of view, including for occupation (Larner, 1984:86). Since the general public was intensely male centric, ladies who didn't fit in to the form of an ordinary lady compromised the possibility of females acting in a specific way. These ladies we re protesters, and hence put the occupations of other ladies in danger. Subsequently, they were shunned by typical ladies. In carrying on in a way that was unique, these ladies likewise undermined male control and in this manner must be censured by men. The two sexes took care of the possibility that a lady who glanced and acted in a specific way was a witch, thus permitting the generalization to endure and spread. Furthermore, the generalization of a local witch could have been supposed to be strengthened by an endless loop. This is obvious sometimes, for example, in that of Anna Schwayhofer, who admitted to taking the Consecrated Host yet at the same time tried to clear up the scraps after she had done as such (Barry, Hester and Roberts, 1996: 230). The relationship of witches and broomsticks or distaffs utilized for turning likewise took care of the generalization. Ladies were generally limited to the bounds of their distributed spaces, and those rehearsing destructive enchantment would in all likelihood be found in those spaces (Blã ©court, 2000: 303). Consequently, it was not astounding that black magic was related with the ladies and their residential exercises. Gendered black magic and sexism The tip top impression of ladies highlighted how they would in general be mentally more vulnerable than men, yet have increasingly voracious sexual cravings and a higher inclination to seek after the mysterious, a view propounded by sixteenth century minister Martin de Castaã ±ega and in the Malleus itself by Kramer and Sprenger. Consequently, verifiable writing would in general point towards how ladies were the more mediocre of the two sexual orientations and in this way had the bigger inclination to be driven towards turning into a witch. No ifs, ands or buts, the general public in Europe by then of time was one that was exceptionally male centric in nature (Hufton, 1983, 125-141). While the general public was basically male centric in nature, there are contentions concerning whether this can be stretched out to be described as being sexist. Anderson and Gordon (1978) point to the natural mediocrity that ladies had according to the Roman Catholic Church, the prevailing strict expe rt in that time, saying that the Church considered ladies to be progressively â€Å"amenable to the appeals of Satan† (Anderson and Gordon, 1978: 174). The paper likewise features the job of the Malleus Maleficarum (1486), that was enemy of women's activist and mainstream, reproducing fourteen versions. The Malleus basically features ladies as animals having unquenchable desire, yet not having the quality of brain to counter the allurements of the Devil. Notwithstanding, measurements additionally show that ladies were not by any means the only ones who were survivors of the witch-chases. In a few locales, men were the ones who were vigorously aggrieved. Locales, for example, Finland show a moderately significantly number of male and female abuses, while in zones, for example, Normandy and Iceland, the quantity of charged male witches far surpassed the quantity of female ones. This plainly shows if there had been a culture of sexism, it was not formally dressed all through Europe. Monter (1964: 563) brings up that the cliché witch in the French area of Normandy was not a poor, elderly person, however a shepherd who might be an adolescent or an elderly person. Additionally, in Iceland, just 8% of all the blamed witches were ladies (Levack, 1987: 142). The investigation and conversation of these measurements appear to highlight the way that there were contrasts in cultural viewpoints towards ladies and the distinctions in addressing st rategies (Monter, 1964: 588). Monter (1964: 589) proposes that ladies were treated with tolerance during the preliminary, and some were kept in jail alive for cross examination, even while the men were being executed. The purposes for why men were more abused in certain social orders and ladies in others are muddled, however most history specialists point to the way that it was difficult to pinpoint a specific explanation in each general public why this was so. A significant part of the purposes for the sex irregular characteristics must be ascribed to the way of life and perspectives on the general public itself, however what can be sure is that the witch-chase was not carefully sexual orientation explicit. Definitely, a general public that places accentuation on man centric qualities can't be excused as sexist essentially dependent on measurements alone. Now it is pertinent to take note of that there were contrasts between the tip top and laborer originations of black magic, and this reached out to the mistreatment of ladies. For the lower class, the mistreatment of witches was less of the agreement with the Devil and a greater amount of commonsense concerns, for example, the disappointment of yields or the passing of domesticated animals (Laurence, 1995: 216-218). Additionally, with the mistreatment of ladies, the worries hovered around the way that infants and small kids were being â€Å"victims† of maleficia, as opposed to the witch being a Devil-admirer essentially. Obviously, along these lines, countless ladies who were blamed for being witches were the lying-in house keepers for progressively advantaged families, who took care of the infants and had direct contact with them, as on account of Anna Ebeler of Augsburg (Roper, 1991: 19). Roper (1991: 23) likewise focuses to how this might be an aftereffect of the relationshi p of femineity and maternity. Typical ladies had the option to have kids, yet witches couldn't, prompting a feeling of jealousy that reared the sentiment of scorn towards moms and their infants. Strands of abnormality One of the focal topics happening in the witch-chases would need to be the way that the general public in early present day Europe had next to no resistance for the individuals who were not quite the same as them. Jews and gay people were abused, and the general public was overwhelmingly worker, poor and part of the Roman Catholic Church. The individuals who were distinctive were disapproved of. Ladies by and large wedded and had youngsters at a youthful age, were uneducated and seen as feeble. Their main role was to be docile to their spouses and serve their families, keeping the family. This perspective on ladies can be differentiated to the generalization of a witch, as referenced previously. Being old and unmarried, just as being socially secluded, these supposed witches were clearly not the same as the general origination of a lady in the public arena. Larner (1981:92) advances that witches were abused not on the grounds that they were ladies, but since they were â€Å"non-women† who didn't fit into the cultural perspective on a lady. While a run of the mill lady was maternal, witches couldn't have kids; where regular ladies remained at home at evenings, witches traveled to remote areas to join Sabbaths. This fit in with the first class originations that the truth wherein witches lived in was basically one that was an enemy of society. Blã ©court (2000: 300) clarifies that God was a â€Å"guardian of social norms†, while the Devil was only the extremely inverse. These â€Å"non-women† were abused for ignoring the social standards, and a few history specialists even contend that ladies blamed other ladies for being witches since they felt undermined by a person who didn't comply with the male picture of them (Larner, 1981: 102). The job of the Roman Church was likewise not to be overlooked in the fortification of this generalization. Ladies had an improved probability to rehearse love enchantment when contrasted with men (Blã ©court, 2000: 303), and since just ministers of the Church could lawfully rehearse enchantment, they were bound to be aggrieved thus. Slim chances While the conceivable nearness of an oppressive man centric society or a cultural repugnance for freak conduct have of

Modernist Versus Postmodernist Perspectives Research - 2475 Words

Modernist Versus Postmodernist Perspectives Research (Essay Sample) Content: Modernist versus Postmodernist Perspectives NameUniversity AffiliationModernist versus Postmodernist PerspectivesModernists and postmodern scholars have developed perspectives of reality based on theories about epistemology and ontology. To explain, epistemology is how we know what is known whereas ontology is what is knowable. These perspectives reflect various perspectives about the nature of organizations. It is worth mentioning that objectivism is the ontology of modernists. Thereby, modernists accept reality that is independent from people's knowledge. At the same time, they believe that scientific observation methods with reliable and valid measurements are used to discover knowledge. These methods allow people to test their comprehension of the world. What is more, modernists view organizations as entities that operate in a real world where techniques and procedures can be tested to improve effectiveness (Tata Prasad, 2015). Conversely, the ontology of post-m odern theorists is that people see the world though discourse and language. Furthermore, they describe knowledge as a valid interpretation of meaning that is derived from people with power (Powell Osborne, 2015). Again, postmodern theorists view organizations as texts that individuals can rewrite and deconstruct to reveal the opinions of the oppressed.ObjectiveThe objective of this paper is to evaluate how various epistemological and ontological views enhance understanding of perspectives of sustainability in organizations.PowerModernist Perspectives of PowerRichard (2012) writes that according to John French and Bertram Raven social power is based on five aspects including expert, referent, legitimate, coercive, and reward power. Expert power is exercised through specialized knowledge. Referent power is through association. Legitimate power is founded in the obligations and values that an individual has for the powerful entity. Coercive power is the expectation that failure to com ply results in punishment. Reward power depends on the ability to reduce negative valences and offer positive rewards. The theory of power and social influence is limited to a person, P, created by social agent, O, whereby O can be a role, another person, a group, a norm, or a part of a group. John French and Bertram Raven base power on resistance and attraction between P and O, but P must expect or perceive O to actually possess a particular power base. Accordingly, the five bases can only apply effective power if P expects that O has authority to do so. Power is based on resistance and attraction of P towards O. For example, corcersion causes reduced attraction and high resistance of P toward O whereas the result of reward power is low resistance and increased attraction. Tata and Prasad (2015) interpretation of power emphasizes on multiple sources of authority based on individual perceptions.Thomas (2011) writes that John Kottler introduces four methods that managers use to gener ate power. The first is perceived dependence on managers that may be acquired by actual or perceived accrual of resources. The second is via unconscious identification whereby the unconscious or conscious idealized appearance of a manager is a source of power. Third is though a belief in the manager's experience and expertise such that others respect him or her. Finally, is by creation of obligation in others whereby others allow the manager to influence them if he or she is successful. Tata and Prasad (2015) argue that the means by which Kottler describes generation of power are dependent upon the perceptions of an individual as sources of power. Ultimately, power flows in multiple directions since individuals decide whether to grant power to managers.Postmodern Perspectives of PowerMichel Foucault proposed the disciplinary power concept that occurs when individuals exercise self-surveillance due to anticipation of control. Consequently, people become self-disciplined by policing t hemselves. Examples of disciplinary power can occur when there is routine surveillance for instance in prisons and schools. From the perspective of organizations, the theory emphasizes the critical role of disciplinary technology and the result of internalized control among members of the firm. With the use of computer surveillance organizational life is controlled via constant disciplinary power. The postmodern theory is critical of modernist approach (Powell Osborne, 2015). Rather than relying on ordered and hierarchical systems or depending on perceptions of individuals, the disciplinary power is based on the context.Asimakou (2009) sees gender as a foundation of domination of women and minorities in organizations. The preference of male leaders to female managers hinders women equality in companies. Asimakous theory claims that power is based on symbolic definitions of primary masculine, ideal roles that are not based in structural and rational reasoning. Ultimately, that has l ed to domination and marginalization of women in multiple organizations.Modernist perspectives view power as equally sourced within organizations with ability for acquisition and use at all levels of a company. Thus, power can be seen as a negative and positive force in a firm. Conversely, postmodern perspectives of power seek to expose abuse of authority through marginalization and domination and seems to focus more on cultural and gender domination.CultureModernist Perspectives of CulturePowell and Osborne (2015) identify fragmentation, differentiation, and integration as three perspectives within organizational culture. The fragmentation perspective embraces a postmodern view of culture in organizations and looks for neither stability not consistence but rather focuses on ways in which cultures within organizations are ambiguous, inconsistent, multiplicitous as well as constantly changing. The differentiation perspective has a subcultural view and describes how unity in organizat ions is broken by subcultures. However, subcultures are depicted as stable, coherent, and consistent wholes. The integration perspective describes organizational culture as being shared by all the members of a culture in a company.According to Ybema, Yanow, and Sabelis (2011), the fragmentation perspective may be described as a postmodern critique of differentiation perspective. The critique focuses on how the differentiation perspective identifies oppositional or dichotomous thinking for example whites versus blacks and women versus men. Subcultures represent the end of a dichotomy and one alternative in the dichotomy is believed to be of higher status than the other. Unfortunately, dichotomous thinking misrepresents and oversimplifies the viewpoints and attributes of individuals in lower status groups. For instance in an organization where whites are believed to have greater value and more status than blacks, the unique and valuable attributes of the subordinated group are ignored . Warren (2012) argues that besides racial identity, hierarchical position, occupation, gender, and several other characteristics may be viewed as oppositional but are multiplicitous and co-exist within people in organizations. Due to variety of individuals identity bases, allegiances to subcultures may shift constantly with issues of discord or debate. Thereby coalitions and alliances cannot stabilize into subcultures or unified cultures since discourse and its related issues change often.Postmodernist Perspectives of CultureModernists believe that values and assumptions influence behavior through expression in expectations and norms and communicate identity via customs, tradition, and symbols. Tata and Prasad (2015) argue that modernists interpret knowledge about culture as tool for management and culture as a variable to be manipulated to increase the possibility of achieving desired performance levels from other people within an organization. The aim of modernist research is to develop knowledge that may be applied in different contexts. According to modernists, it is good to sacrifice contextual sensitivity but wrong to give up organizational comparisons. The modernist argument provides evidence for control and efficiency. Ybema, Yanow, and Sabelis (2011) write that modernist studies involve analyzing statistical variable that represent organizational performance and culture. The quantification of cultural variables requires selecting a particular dimension of the culture construct to measure. Cultural strength is a variable that is described as extent to which members within an organization share core values. For example, cultural strength may be determined by asking survey respondents about the extent to which they disagree or agree to certain statements. Subsequently, the cultural strength can be estimated by computing responses of the statistical sample to be studied. Next, observations of cultural strength for many organizations could be applied to c reate a variable and compute how it is correlated with various measures, such as organizational performance.Hassard and Martin (2013) writes that although culture is strongly related to the overall performance of the organization, the relationship becomes stronger when cultural values support the adaptation of the organization to the environment. Accordingly, culture has a greater influence on the performance of organizations when it helps organizations to adapt or anticipate to environmental change. When culture does not support adaptation, performance is hindered by cultural strength. The reason for that is because an entrenched culture can hinder efforts for implementation of new strategies. Ultimately, in stable environments successful companies share a mission culture or mission of the future and have strong values for consistency culture or conformity to traditions and procedures.MarketingThe beliefs, opinion...

The Minimum Level Of Nursing - 1739 Words

â€Å"BSN in Ten.† Nafisah Abdul Salam Lehman College Policy and Politics 408 Professor Theresa Lundy March 26, 2015 The minimum level of nursing education required for nursing jobs has been a topic of discussion for a several decade now. The Council of State Board of Nursing reported in their most recent statistics that Associate Registered Nurses accounted for 58.4% of the workforce while only 38.4% have a Bachelor’s Degree in Nursing in the United States. The issue is that recommendations have been made to shut down the existing pipeline of Associate Nurses (AN) to that of Bachelor of Science in Nursing (BSN). The goal of this change is to transition the average 50% of the nurses who have an associate degree to 80% BSN by the next†¦show more content†¦The different access points is a strength of the nursing profession because for those who are passionate about the nursing but can not afford to attend a four-year college due to circumstance beyond their control. Beside the baccalaureate, the other route takes between 12 to 24 months to complete. But the issue is the current need for a more educated nursing force. How will the nursing community improve patient care and increase the level of education of its workforce while still accepting multiple educational access point? Nursing is an amazing career because it has so many opportunities to change, grow and progress. There is always something new to learn every day especially with the advancement in technology, a new technique, must learned on a regular basis. Nursing has come a long way from the days when nurses were assistants to doctors. Nurses are considered as health care professionals who are bright, capable, and often have a clearer view of the overall situation than doctors do. The above point brings us to the political background of the issue. While education and certification are a necessary component of preparing nurses for practice, the State Licensing Boards are the final mediators of the requirement entry and certification. The American Nurses Association has decided to support initiatives that require RNs to obtain a Bachelor of Science Degree in Nursing (BSN) within ten years of initial licensure (2014). Whether

Positive or Normative Accounting Theories †Free Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Positive or Normative Accounting Theories. Answer: Introduction Theaccounting systems used by business organizations for preparing and disclosing their financial reports are developed through the application of theoretical concepts that have helped in developing most appropriate method for depicting an organizational performance. Theaccounting theories have been utilized in developing a standardized system that can be used for presentation of financial information to the stakeholders of a business entity (Whittington, 2007). In this context, the present essay discusses the contribution of PositiveAccounting Theory (PAT) and normativeaccounting theory (NAT) in development of accounting policies used for preparation of financial reports. The report also undertakes examination of the factors that led to the development of PAT accounting policy choice. The report also presents a discussion relating to the application of normative or positive theories in developing of accounting standards by providing the justification of the choice selected. Difference between (PAT) and normative accounting theory (NAT) and the factors that led to the development of PAT accounting policy choice The positive accounting theory (PAT) was developed by Watts and Zimmerman in 1970s to provide an explanation of the reality of accounting practices. The theory seeks to provide an explanation of the accounting choices of the firms through examining the real world situations. The theory examines the real transactions happening in the world for gaining an understanding of the accounting practices of the businesses. The theory since its establishment was believed to be based on the principle of economics and thus regarded to be appropriate for providing an explanation to the practical accounting problems. The theoretical concepts of the PAT model are utilized by the companies in preparing financial documents such as balance sheet or cash flow statements. Thus, the theory was believed to provide an adequate explanation of economic consequences of the accounting choices made by the business firms (Ghanbari et al., 2016). The theory emphasizes on examining the economic statistics for deriving a valid conclusion based on the data collected and analyzed. The theory seeks to provide an explanation to the past, current and future financial events through the application of real world practices. For example, the theory is used for gaining an understanding of the net loss occurring in a company through comparing the actual revenue to actual expenses on an annual basis. Also, the theory proves to be effective in gaining an understanding of the increase in shareholder dividend by a company at the end of a financial year due to its increased growth and profitability. The theory by proving an explanation of the past and current financial situations of a company tries to predict its accounting practices in the future context (Petitt et al., 2014). On the other hand, Normative Accounting Theory (NAT) is purely subjective and is mainly used for providing value judgment for resolving a complex accounting issue. The value judgment provided by the normative accounting theories is mainly based on the ground of morality and ethics. The theory of NAT undertakes a different approach as compared to PAT model as it intends to provide suggestions to the accountants on the basis of theoretical principle and does not integrate the application of real world accounting practices. As such, the model of NAT finds application in accounting context at the time of establishing future economic policies such as developing mission statement or marketing strategies. Thus, it can be said that the concept advocated by normative accounting practices are mainly used at the time of developing the aims and objectives that a company want to achieve in the future period of time. For example, the theory of NAT is mainly used for indicating the amount of money to be invested by a company for enhancing its business growth (Wolk et al., 2008). The main difference between NAT and PAT model is on the basis of different approaches used at the time of their development. The normative accounting theory adopt a deductive approach in providing an explanation to the accounting practices as it initiates with a theoretical principle and deduces to the development of specific policies. On the contrary, PAT model adopts inductive approach that initiates with application of specific policies and then reaching to the generalization of higher-level principles. The theory of positive accounting is very practical and hence is mainly used for achieving the practical based aims and objectives of accounting researches. However, the theory of normative accounting is purely subjective and thus not regarded to be very useful in resolving the practical based accounting issues (Whittington, 2007). The accounting field initially mainly incorporates the theoretical views and principle advocated by the normative accounting theory in providing an explanation to the accounting practices. However, the theory mainly faced criticism as it seems to be inappropriate in selection of an accounting principal to be used in resolving a complex accounting problem. For example, at the time of doing a contract, the practice of normative accounting does not help in providing a solution for the income and cost arising from the contract to be assessed immediately, over time or as a lump sum in future (Tehrani et al., 2009). Thus, the accountants are not able to achieve an appropriate answer for this accounting issue which of the above mentioned option should be used or a combination of all the above three to be applied. Thus, as the theory is purely subjective on nature it was not regarded to be appropriate in resolving scientific based accounting problems. Thus, all these factors lead to the esta blishment of Positive Accounting Theory (PAT) model to successfully resolve the practical accounting problems. The model incorporates the use of statistically based hypothesis testing for achieving a valid answer for the accounting problems. The method begins with examination of the current accounting processes of a business firm and thus making quantitative predictions on the basis of analysis. The predictions are statistical tested through the help of hypothesis development that help in achieving the most suitable answer for accounting problem (Setyorini and Ishak, 2012). Positive or Normative Accounting Theories to be used at the time of developing Accounting Standards The accounting theories were largely used for developing the accounting standards and principles used for preparation of financial statements of business entities. The theory of positive accounting was mainly established in order to fulfill the current weakness analyzed from the normative accounting theory. The theory regarded to be useful in gaining an understanding of the social context of accounting choices made by different companies was used largely by the accountants in developing financial statements. However, there is increasing debate regarding the usefulness of positive accounting theory in developing standard accounting policies to be used worldwide by business entities. The accounting theorists have stated that there has not been the development of an accounting theory till data that is able to create standard-setting process and principle in accounting. The accounting theorists have illustrated various drawbacks present in the positive accounting theory on the basis of w hich it is refereed to be unable to develop standard accounting principles. The main objective of accounting theories developed was to provide standard set of principles and conventions that helps in analyzing the accounting operations of business companies. The theory of NAT was regarded to be inappropriate in the basis of its subjective nature that leads to the development of PAT model. The PAT model was based to be developed on the principles of natural science and economics and thus was utilized largely for the development of financial statements by business firms (Ghanbari et al., 2016). However, the accounting theorists have pointed out various deficiencies in the current PAT model used by accountants for analyzing the problems pertaining in the accounting field. The main drawback of the theory as argued by the accounts is that it only helps in providing an explanation to the actual accounting practices but does not provide suggestions for improving the current accounting practices. Also, relative no development in the accounting model of PAT farer its mergence also raises questions on the reliability of this accounting model. The accountants have stated that the theory of PAT is not able to resolve successfully the contemporary accounting issues. The PAT model is mainly based on the following three hypotheses that are, debit hypothesis, the bonus-plan hypothesis and the political cost hypothesis. However, all of the above three hypothesis does not have scientific support and are falsified and thus cannot be used in the model of PAT. Thus, the theory is criticized o n the basis of all the above stated current deficiencies that make it ineffective in maintaining the objectivity of accounting researches (Bazrafshan and Talebnia, 2016). Thus, it can be said there are some deficiencies present in both the positive and normative accounting theories and therefore they are not helpful in development of a standard setting accounting rules and principles. The accountants can integrate both the theories in development of standard accounting principles as the deficiencies of one theory can be overcome by the application of other. Both the theoretical models of NAT and PAT complement each other as the weaknesses of one can be fulfilled by the other. The theory of positive accounting is very practical while normative is entirely theoretical as such the concepts of both the theories can be used in development of accounting concepts that are practical as well as principles. The accounting theorists have argued that financial policies developed through the use of normative accounting practices should be based on financial realities achieved from implementing positive accounting practices. The theory of positive accounting can he lp in understanding the reality of accounting statements while normative theory can be used in developing appropriate accounting standards. The accounting researches need to integrate the views and opinions of both the theoretical models for development of a standard-setting process that help in the establishment of accounting principles (Boland and Gordon, 2010). Therefore, it can be stated that accounting theories of positive and normative can be used in developing conceptual framework of accounting that helps in evaluation and analysis of accounting practices. The theories of normative and positive of applied in combination will help in developing qualitative and quantitative approaches for developing effective accounting and financial reporting standards. The adoption of both the theoretical and practical approaches will help in development of standard principles that will provide both qualitative and quantitative disclosure of financial information to the end-users. The quantitative approach will help in ensuring that accounting information disclosed is relevant, reliable, comparable and consistent while qualitative approach will ensure that financial statements have adhered to the generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) (Mahmmod and Al- Kassar, 2015). The development of PAT after the establishment of NAT was regarded to be highly successful in development of accounting setting principles and standards. However, with the illustration of several current deficiencies in the PAT model, accounting theorists are now emphasizing on the development of better theoretical models that can be applied in development of both quantitative and qualitative accounting principles and standards. The current accounting practices developed through the application of concepts of positive and normative theories and thus both the theories should be used in combination for development of standard-setting accounting process (CTI Reviews, 2016). Conclusion The overall discussion held in the report inferred that both the theoretical models of positive and normative have deficiencies that limit their applicability in development of accounting standard-setting process. There exist large difference between the theoretical models of normative and positive and the deficiencies of one theory can be fulfilled by the other theory. Thus, the report has proposed that both the theoretical models should be used in combination for development of accounting-standard principles and procedures. The positive accounting theory will help in developing a practical approach for examining financial reports while normative theory will help in establishing of theoretical principles on the basis of which financial reports are developed. References Bazrafshan, M., and Talebnia, G. 2016. Challenges Positive Accounting Theory. International Journal of Basic Sciences Applied Research 5(2), 119-122. Boland, L. A., and Gordon, I. M. 2010. Criticizing positive accounting theory. Contemporary Accounting Research 9(1), pp. 142 170. CTI Reviews. 2016. Earnings Management, Emerging Insights in Theory, Practice, and Research: Business, Business. Cram101 Textbook Reviews. Ghanbari, M. et al. 2016. PAT (Positive Accounting Theory) and Natural Science. International Research Journal of Applied and Basic Sciences 10(2), pp. 177-182. Mahmmod, H. T., and Al- Kassar, T. A. 2015. Analytical study of the effectiveness of use of normative and Positive in the area of affirmative theorizing about Accounting. European Centre for Research Training and Development 3(1), pp.30-45. Petitt, B. S. et al. 2014. A Pragmatic Look at Valuation (Collection). FT Press. Setyorini, C. T., and Ishak, Z. 2012. Corporate Social and Environmental Disclosure: A Positive Accounting Theory. International Journal of Business and Social Science 3(9), pp. 152-164. Tehrani, R. et al. 2009. The Survey of the political Costs and Firm Size: Case from Iran. Business Intelligence Journal 2(2), pp. 139-142. Whittington, G. 2007. Profitability, Accounting Theory and Methodology: The Selected Essays of Geoffrey Whittington. Routledge. Wolk, H. I., Dodd, J. L., and Rozycki, J. J. 2008. Accounting Theory: Conceptual Issues in a Political and Economic Environment. SAGE.

Essay Topics for Elementary Students for Dummies

Essay Topics for Elementary Students for Dummies Details of Essay Topics for Elementary Students In case the assignment doesn't require a particular topic to tackle, then you're absolutely free to choose something out of your own interest. Your principal is attempting to determine which teacher is going to be nominated from your school. Very often it becomes hard to choose 1 topic either on account of the many ideas in the student's head, or due to their complete absence. For instance, you can select a topic for elementary, middle, or higher school. Therefore, you might take an effortless topic and surprise everyone with your wide means of thinking and your individual values. Make certain you're really interested in the matter, because otherwise you will have no confidence, which is a significant aspect when convincing somebody. When you pick a cause and effect topic, it must be something that you either know well or are interested in knowing more about. Yearly driving tests ought to be mandatory for the initial five years after obtaining a license. Your state is likely to provide an award to the most effective elementary school teacher. Interestingly many are taught just in class. In high school, you're supposed to choose the sort of topic you are going to be in a position to dig into that is, it's necessary for you to be sure you can discover enough info on the matter. Others might concentrate on how the 2 things are different. The Key to Successful Essay Topics for Elementary Students You might need to steer clear from subject matters that were presented for more than a thousand times. Anyway, below, it is possible to find topic that are great for both instances. It is often as large or as small as it is possible to consider! In most instances, a speech has to be kept short and to-the-point too, especially when time is an important matter. Say for instance, you could earn a speech about an unforgettable memory by means of your loved ones. You may be interested in dedication speech examples. You may be interested in speech examples for students. Explain what would make you wish to visit school in the summertime. It is impossible to generate an actual friend online. Second, talk what you shouldn't do instead of what has to be accomplished. To begin with, you've got to select a topic. Writing practice should not be boring! Decide on a law and explain why it's so important to you. The cost of an essay depends upon the total amount of effort the writer has to exert. You are unable to begin writing an essay without a sharp clue about what things to write. You want to create your reader curious about the topic and hopefully make him want to find out more. The reader ought to take the author's side by the close of the reading. Explain'' is to express the info on this issue as a way to make it even more understandable to the reader. After you choose a topic, you must reply to the query and after that substantiate your response with three or more motivations as to why you think like that. In the end, if you are supposed to write and essay but have very little knowledge or interest in the topic, don't forget there are lots of custom essay writers which will gladly do the task for you. At the exact same time, it's a wonderful persuasive essay idea. As an example, let's say you decide on the very first topic from our list. Well, the response isn't too obvious here. Speech writing and delivery can be an intimidating job for many students. Ensure your speech is composed of an introduction, a body, and a conclusion. To choose which subject you're likely to discuss, it's crucial to see the complete collection of good persuasive speech topics from the special area of study. Speech topics may vary from simple to complex themes that have social difficulties or political issues in the present society.